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Milonni, The Quantum Vacuum: An Introduction to Quantum Electrodynamics, Academic Press, New York, 1 Timothy H. Boyer, Random Electrodynamics: The theory of classical electrodynamics with classical electromagnetic zero-point radiation, Physical Review D, Vol. 11:4, pp. 790-808, 15 February, 1 de la Pena, and A. Cetto, The Quantum Dice: An introduction to stochastic electrodynamics. Kluwer Academic Publisher, Dordrecht, 1 Stephen M. Barnett, Photons faster than light?, Nature, Vol. 344, p. 289, 22 March, 19 Kenneth W. Ford, Classical and Modern Physics, Vol. 1290, Wiley, New York, 1 I. Levine et al. , Measurement of the Electromagnetic Coupling at large momentum Transfer, Physical Review Letters, 78:3, pp. 424-427, 20 Jan 1 K. Huang, On the Zitterbewegung of the Dirac Electron, American Journal of Physics, Vol. 20, pp. 479-484, 1 Bernard Haisch, Alfonso Rueda and Puthoff, Beyond E mc A First Glimpse of a Universe Without Mass, The Sciences, pp. 26-31, New York Academy of Sciences, November/December 1 B. Haisch, A. Rueda, and H. Puthoff, Physics of the Zero-Point Field: Implications for Inertia, Gravitation and Mass, Speculations in Science and Technology, Vol. 20, pp. 99-114, 1 E. Nelson, Derivation of the Schroedinger Equation from Newtonian Mechanics, Physical Review, Structured finance vacancy in east anglia 150, pp. 1079-1085, 1 Jack S. Greenberg and Walter Greiner, Search for the sparking of the vacuum, Physics Today, pp. 24-32, August 1 Walter J. Moore, Physical Chemistry, pp. 12-13, Longmans 1 Barton, Faster-Than-c Light Between Parallel Mirrors, Physics Letters B, Vol. 237, No. 3, 4, p. 559-562, 22March, 19 Bleaney and B. Bleaney, Electricity and Magnetism, p. 242, Oxford, at the Clarendon Press, 1 R.

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Corrections to the atomic clock As a consequence of knowing how light-speed and atomic clocks have behaved from the redshift, atomic and radiometric clocks can now be corrected to read actual orbital time. As a result, Job vacancies nufield hospital hull eras can have a new orbital time-scale set beside them. This will necessitate a re-orientation in our current thinking on such matters. The effects of changing the vacuum energy density uniformly Job vacancies nufield hospital hull the cosmos have been considered in this presentation. This in no way precludes the possibility that the vacuum energy density may vary on a local astronomical scale, perhaps due to Job vacancies nufield hospital hull processes. In such cases, dramatically divergent redshifts may be expected when two neighbouring astronomical objects are compared. Arp has listed off a number of potential instances where this explanation may be valid 82, This model proposes that an initial small, hot, dense, highly energetic universe underwent rapid expansion to its current size, and remained static thereafter. The response of the fabric of space, through the behaviour of Planck particle pairs, gave rise to an increasing Job vacancies nufield hospital hull density for the ZPE. This had two results. First, there was a progressive decline in light-speed. Concurrently, atomic particle and orbital Job vacancies nufield hospital hull throughout the cosmos underwent a series of quantum increases, as more energy became available to them from the vacuum. Therefore, with increasing time, atoms emitted light that shifted in jumps towards the more energetic blue end of the spectrum. As a result, as we look back in time to progressively more distant astronomical objects, we see that process in reverse. That is to say the light of these galaxies is shifted in jumps towards the red end of the spectrum. The implications of this model solve some astronomical problems but, at the same time, challenge some current historical interpretations. My heartfelt thanks goes to Helen Fryman for the many hours she spent in order to make this paper readable for a wide audience. A debt of gratitude is owed to Dr. Michael Webb, Dr. Bernard Brandstater, and Lambert Dolphin for their many helpful discussions and sound advice. Finally, I must also acknowledge the pungent remarks of Lucas, which resulted in some significant improvements to this paper. Timothy H. Boyer, The Classical Vacuum, Scientific American, pp. 70-78, August 1 Robert Matthews, Nothing Job vacancies nufield hospital hull a Vacuum, New Scientist, p. 30-33, 25 February 1 Harold E. Puthoff, Can The Vacuum Be Engineered For Spaceflight Applications? Overview Of Theory And Experiments, NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Workshop, August 12-14, 1997, NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio. Harold E. Puthoff, Everything for nothing, New Scientist, pp. 36-39, 28 July 19 Anonymous, Where does the zero-point energy come from?, New Scientist, p. 14, 2 December 1 Martin Harwit, Astrophysical Concepts, p. 513, Second Edition, Springer-Verlag, 1 A. French, Principles of Modern Physics, p. 176, John Wiley Sons, New York, 1 P.

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All the effects outlined in this summary then respond as a consequence. The only issue remaining for examination is the basic reason for the behaviour of the Planck particle pairs. Since Law librarian vacancy job c is dependent Law librarian vacancy job the ZPE as outlined above, its behaviour cannot be influencing the ZPE. In a Law librarian vacancy job way, it can be argued that both mass and atomic time are dependent upon the ZPE for their behaviour so that their performance does not Law librarian vacancy job the heart of the matter. On the SED approach, even the Newtonian gravitational constant G is a ZPE phenomenon, which removes it from contention here. The one factor that Law librarian vacancy job emerge from the foregoing discussion is the increasing quantum uncertainty that allows Planck particle pairs to manifest for an increasing length of time. Thus, as the intrinsic potential energy of the cosmos runs down, quantum uncertainty increases, so the Planck time interval increases, in an analogous way to the behaviour of some spring-driven clocks. This model assumes each quantum change occurs instantaneously throughout the cosmos. Yet a finite time is taken for light emitted by atomic processes to reach the observer. Consequently, the observed redshift will appear to be quantised in spherical shells centred about any observer anywhere in the universe. All objects that emit light within that shell will have the same redshift. Missing mass in galaxy clusters The relative velocities of individual galaxies within clusters of galaxies are measured by their redshift. From this redshift measurement, it has been concluded that the velocities of Law librarian vacancy job are too high for them to remain within the cluster for the assumed age of the Law librarian vacancy job Therefore Law librarian vacancy job have been looking for the missing mass needed to hold such clusters together by way of gravitational forces. However, if the redshift does not actually represent velocity at all, then the problem disappears since the quantised redshift largely explains the changing cz values across the diameters of most Law librarian vacancy job of galaxies. Indeed, a large actual velocity component in these cz values would destroy the quantisation effect. Recent work on galaxy clusters has revealed the significant information that in the centre of the Virgo cluster, galaxies were moving fast enough to wash out the redshift periodicity As the actual relative velocities of Law librarian vacancy job is therefore small, no mass is missing. Note that this does not solve the problem of the missing mass within spiral galaxies which is a separate issue. A uniform microwave background An initial very high value for light-speed means that the radiation in the very early moments of the cosmos would be rapidly homogenised by scattering processes. This means that the radiation we observe from that time will be both uniform and smooth. This is Law librarian vacancy job what is observed with the microwave background radiation coming from all Law librarian vacancy job of the sky This model therefore provides an answer to its smoothness without the necessity of secondary assumptions about matter distribution and galaxy formation that tend to be a problem for current theories.

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Indeed, if space were continuing its uniform expansion, the precise quantisation of spectral line shifts that Tifft has noted would be smeared out and lost. The same argument applies to cosmological contraction. This suggests that the initial expansion halted before redshifted spectral lines were emitted by the most distant galaxies, and that since then the Vacancies for health education jobs has been essentially static. In 1993, Jayant Narliker and Halton Arp published a paper in Astrophysical Journal vol. 405, p. 51 which revealed that a static cosmos containing matter was indeed stable against collapse under conditions that are fulfilled in this new model. However, the initial expansion was important. As Paul S. Wesson 77, Martin Harwit 78 and others have shown, the physical vacuum initially acquired a potential energy in the form of an elasticity, tension, or stress as a result of the inflationary expansion of the cosmos. This might be considered to be akin to the tension, stress, or elasticity in the fabric of a balloon that has been inflated. In order to appreciate what is happening to the structure of the vacuum under these conditions, the statement of Pipkin and Ritter is again relevant, namely that the Planck length is a length at which the smoothness of space breaks down, and space assumes a granular structure Since this granular structure of space is made up of Planck particle pairs, whose dimensions are equal to the Planck length, then it is at the level of these Planck particle pairs that the vacuum is likely to respond to the expansion of the cosmos. More specifically, such an expansion of the fabric of space is likely to cause an increased separation and spin of the Planck particle pairs. Because these Planck particle pairs have positive and negative charges, their separation will give rise to electric fields and Vacancies for health education jobs spin will give rise to magnetic fields. It is these electro-magnetic fields from the Planck particle pairs that comprise the all-pervasive ZPE. In that sense, then, the original expansion set the initial conditions governing the ZPE. However, once those parameters were set and the cosmos reached a static state, the energy density of the ZPE would depend upon the number of Planck particle pairs that manifested in a unit volume in any given Vacancies for health education jobs interval. Anything that changes this number will also change the energy density of the ZPE, along with all the effects that have been discussed in this paper. In this way, the structure and behaviour of the vacuum at the Planck particle level is determining all the observed effects at the atomic level. An important factor in the discussion then becomes the interval known as the Planck time, which is the length of time that Planck particle pairs exist before annihilating. This time interval is governed by the behaviour of Plancks constant h. Since h is increasing with the passing of dynamical time, as discussed above, this means that the Planck time interval is also increasing. In this sense it is rather like a cheap watch that slows down as its spring unwinds so that the period between its ticks increases. The function governing this rate of ticking is the same as the function governing light-speed behaviour. This effectively means that, for any given constant dynamical interval, more Planck particle pairs will be in existence per unit volume, as each particle pair will remain in existence for a longer time. In order to illustrate this more effectively, consider a unit volume of space in which the conditions are such that a Planck particle pair manifests every dynamical second. Furthermore, let the Planck time interval also be one dynamical second. Thus, at any given observed interval of one dynamical second, only one particle pair will exist in that unit volume. Let the Planck time then be increased by a factor of 3, so that each particle pair exists for 3 dynamical seconds. Vacancies for health education jobs other conditions remain unchanged, a new particle pair will still manifest every second. Thus 3 particle pairs will exist during any given dynamical second. First, there is the pair that originated at the beginning of that interval, just as the situation was before. Then there is Vacancies for health education jobs the pair that originated one second earlier, so that the observational interval is the middle second of their 3 second lifespan. Then in addition there is also the pair that originated two seconds earlier, so that the observational second is the 3rd second of their existence. It can therefore be demonstrated that if Plancks constant increases by a factor N, the Planck time interval is also increased by a factor N, and therefore the number of Planck particle pairs per unit volume in any given dynamical interval increased by a factor N.

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He looked at a possible solution if it was accepted that light-speed continuously decreased over the lifetime of the cosmos, and the associated atomic constants varied synchronously. He suggested that, at the origin of the cosmos, light might have travelled at 10 times its current speed. He concluded that the cosmos was static and not expanding. In 1993, J. Moffat of the University of Toronto, Canada, had two articles published in the International Journal of Modern Physics D see also He suggested that there was a high value for c during the earliest moments of the formation of the cosmos, following which it rapidly dropped to its present North carolina petroleum engineering vacancy Then, in January 1999, a paper in Physical Review D by Andreas Albrecht and Joao Magueijo, entitled A Time Varying Speed Of Light As A Solution To Cosmological Puzzles received a great deal of attention. These authors demonstrated that a number of serious problems facing North carolina petroleum engineering vacancy could be solved by a very high initial speed of light. Like Moffat before them, Albrecht and Magueijo isolated their North carolina petroleum engineering vacancy initial light-speed and its proposed dramatic drop to the current speed to a very limited time during the formation of the cosmos. However, in the same issue of Physical Review D there appeared a paper by John D. Barrow, Professor of Mathematical Sciences at the University of Cambridge. He took this concept one step further by proposing that the speed of light has dropped from the value proposed by Albrecht and Magueijo down to its current North carolina petroleum engineering vacancy over the lifetime of the universe. An article in New North carolina petroleum engineering vacancy for July 24, 1999, summarised these proposals in the Editors introduction. Call it heresy, but all the big cosmological problems will simply melt away, if you break one rule, says John D. Barrow the rule that says the speed of light never varies. Interestingly, the initial speed of light proposed by Albrecht, Magueijo and Barrow is 10 times its current speed. In contrast, the redshift data give a far less dramatic result. The most distant object seen in the Hubble Space Telescope has a redshift, z, of This indicates light-speed was about 1 x 10 greater than now. At the origin of the cosmos this rises to about 4 x 10 times the current value of c, more in line with Troitskiis proposal, and considerably more conservative than the Barrow, Albrecht and Magueijo estimate. This lower, more conservative estimate is also in line with the North carolina petroleum engineering vacancy Norman-Setterfield Report. Given all these results, the key question then becomes, why should the ZPE increase with time? One basic tenet of the Big Bang and some other cosmologies is an initial rapid expansion of the universe. That initial rapid expansion is accepted here. However, the redshift can no longer be North carolina petroleum engineering vacancy as evidence that this initial expansion has continued until the present.

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From this comparison of data, he concluded that the number of atomic seconds in a dynamical interval is becoming fewer. Presumably, if the Summer music festivals vacancies has any generality to it, this means that atomic phenomena are slowing down with respect to dynamical phenomena Van Flandern has more recently been involved in setting the parameters running the clocks in the Global Positioning System of satellites used for navigation around the world. His clock comparisons indicated that atomic phenomena were slowing against the dynamical standard until about 19 This implies that c was continuing to slow until at least 1980, regardless of the results obtained using the frequency-dependent measurements of recent atomic clocks. Summer music festivals vacancies clock comparisons are useful in another way. The atomic dates of historical artifacts can be approximated via radiometric dating. These dates can then be compared with actual historical, or orbital, dates. This comparison of clocks allows us to examine the situation prior to 1678 when the Danish astronomer Roemer made the first measurement of the speed of light. When this comparison is done, light-speed behaviour is seen to include an oscillation, which seems to have had one minimum around 2570 BC, with an error of about 200 years, following which it climbed to a secondary maximum, and then started dropping again. Indeed, it is of interest to note that measurements of several atomic constants associated with c seem to indicate that the c decay curve apparently bottomed out around 1980 AD and may have started to increase again. More data are needed before a positive statement can be made. Furthermore, the redshift observations themselves Summer music festivals vacancies this oscillation that results in a steps and stairs pattern Summer music festivals vacancies on the general trend of the main curve. At the flat points in this pattern, the value of z changes slowly over a large distance so that many galaxies are involved. Consequently, significant numbers of galaxies appear to congregate at preferred, systematic redshifts By contrast, on the steeply rising Summer music festivals vacancies of the step, the value of z changes rapidly over a relatively short distance, so relatively few galaxies are found with those redshifts. These redshift periodicities form a precise mathematical sequence 73 and are different to any quantisation as these periodicities are dependent on the numbers of galaxies counted at a given redshift. By contrast, the line of change in redshift value due to quantisation may often pass right through individual galaxies. As both Close 74 and Dazzo Houpis 75 pointed out in 1966, this oscillation is typical of many physical systems. The complete response of a system to an input of energy comprises two parts: the forced response and the free or natural response. This can be illustrated by a number of mechanical or electrical systems. The forced response comes from the injection of energy into the system. The free response is the systems own natural period of oscillation. The two together describe the complete behaviour of the system. In this new model, the main trend of the curve represents the energy injection into the system, while the oscillation comes from the free response of the cosmos to this energy injection. This dual process has affected atomic behaviour and light-speed throughout the cosmos. The issue of light-speed in the early cosmos is one that has received some attention recently in several peer-reviewed journals. Starting in December 1987, the Russian physicist V. Troitskii from the Radiophysical Research Institute in Gorky published a twenty-two page analysis in Astrophysics and Space Science regarding the problems cosmologists faced with the early universe.

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Professor Raymond T. Birge, who did not personally accept the idea that the speed of light could vary, nevertheless stated that the observational data left only one conclusion. He stated that if c was actually varying and wavelengths remained unchanged, this could only mean the value of every atomic frequencymust be changing Birge was able to make this statement because of an equation linking the wavelength W of light, with frequency F, and light-speed c. The equation reads c FW. If W is constant and c is varying, then F must vary in proportion to c. Furthermore, Birge knew that the frequency of light emitted from atoms is directly proportional to the frequency of the revolution of atomic particles in their orbits All atomic frequencies are therefore directly proportional to F, and so also directly proportional to c, just as Birge indicated. The run-rate of atomic clocks is governed by atomic frequencies. It therefore follows that these clocks, in all their various forms, run at a rate proportional to c. The atomic clock is thereby c-dependent, while the orbital or dynamical clock ticks independently at a constant rate. In 1965, Kovalevsky pointed out the converse of this. He stated that if the two clock rates were different, then Plancks constant as well as atomic frequencies would drift This is precisely what the observations reveal. This has practical consequences in the measurements of c. In 1949 the frequency-dependent ammonia-quartz clock was introduced and became standard in many scientific laboratories But by 1967, atomic clocks had become uniformly adopted as timekeepers around the world. Methods that use atomic clocks to measure c will always fail to detect any changes in light-speed, since their run-rate varies directly as c varies. This is evidenced by the change in character of the c data following the introduction of these clocks. This is why the General Conference on Weights and Measures meeting in Paris in October of 1983 declared c an absolute constant Since then, any change in the speed of light would have to be inferred from measurements other than those involving atomic clocks. However, this problem with frequencies and atomic clocks can actually supply additional data to work with. It is possible in principle to obtain evidence for speed of light variation by comparing the run-rate of atomic clocks with that of dynamical clocks. When this is done, a difference in run-rate is noted. Over a number of years up to 1980, Dr. Thomas Van Flandern of the US Naval Observatory in Washington examined data from lunar laser ranging using atomic clocks, and compared their data with data from dynamical, or orbital, clocks.